What is Nationalism?
New theories, ideologies
and practices invade the world from time to time and some ideologies revise
with the time and space. Specially political theories change according to the
above phenomenon. Liberalism, Marxism, Fascism, Imperialism etc. are few such
examples and Nationalism also one of the theory which affected to the world
mostly. When studying the reconciliation or political integration, nationalism
is one of the principle fact and nationalism is a key theory for a multi-
ethnic country. From this assignment, tries to evaluate what is nationalism and
its new trends, as well as some homogenous factors of Asian nationalism.
When analyzing on
Nationalism , the definition or interpretation for the nationalism is very
important. According to the various scholars and schools, much scholars defined
nationalism according to their subject areas and up to the present scholars
couldn’t build up an universal definition to the nationalism. Thus, then What
is Nationalism, how was it emerged to the world, it is a colossal question in
front of the scholars.
Nationalism was invented
to the world as a Euro centric theory and populared among the world with the
imperialism. When studying on the history of Nationalism, According to the
European theoretical approach, it was emerged during the modern age of Europe.[1] According to the
periodization or stratification of the European history, medieval age was begun
after the collapsed of the Greek and Roman Empire, while with the beginning of
the renaissance of the Europe, medieval period of Europe was vaporized. Some
Scholars defined the medieval age as a dark age of Europe, because some fields
were deteriorated with some political and social factors.[2] With the collapse of Greek
and Roman Empire, united regions were divided into several territories and few
princely states were created. Meanwhile, power of the ruler was decentralized
according to the hierarchy of Barons and regional leaders were empowered with
the new political system. Due to the impact of new social system peasants faced
several inconveniences and consequences. Feudal system was prevailed since the
beginning of the medieval period and peasants were tied with the feudal rules.
Self-sufficient and subsistent economy was prevailed and land was the key
factor of the economy with barter system. Christianity involved to the very
movement of the state and states belonged several group of people from different
regions because territories were not divided in a unitary or autonomous mode.
Therefore several group of ethnic, religious, caste identities were in a state.
With the emergence of a new era to Europe, feudal
thoughts and theories were negotiated with the new aspects. Among them nation
state was one of the important factor which arose in the modern age. It can be
defines as, The nation state is a theoretical, political and historical concept
expressing the juxtaposition of a state (as a political organization) and a nation (individuals who consider themselves
bound and belonging to the same group.[3] According to the oxford
dictionary, “A sovereign state of which most of the citizens or subjects are
united also by factors which define a nation, such as language or common
descent.” defines as a nation state.[4] Due to the impact of
various events such as cross wars among Christians and Muslims, gradual decline
of aristocratic political hierarchy, emergence of the trade, usage of money
with related economic professions, transferring people from the land, decline
of the orthodox Church and religious transformation movements etc. new
political system was created. New political ideologies were emerged with new
scholarly ideas like humanism and such ideas generated with the terms of the
republications of the Greek and Roman books. Such revolutionary changes created
nation state ideas and people gathered among it.
There were few basic
factors of a nation state and they were population, territory and sovereignty,
while all the citizens gathered around them. Population consists of the entire
person living in the territory of the state and they were consisted with
parities. History, religion, culture, language, rituals and believes create an
autonomy in a state and it is very useful for a formation of nationalism.[5] Having a unitary population
with same aspects led to the formation of nationalism. When comparing the
history, medieval states consisted with different identities and they were no
any sole identities, while different ethnic groups, different believes and
religions, as well as various languages were there. Having same kind of aspects
such as history, language, culture etc. promotes the nationalism. Meanwhile,
territory is the ideas of a safe space in which the state is expressed.[6] During medieval period,
there were lot of wars between the states for the territories and land was very
unstable due to the wars. In the modern age, territory was clear and stable and
it makes some safe ideas among the people and it led to the nationalist ideas. The
most important factor of the state was sovereignty and sovereignty is the existence
of a political organization that exercises its authority over territory and the
population.[7]
Sovereignty is the concept, which denotes the freedom of a state and equality
among the state. Therefore citizens of a country feel that they are equal when
comparing with other state and it promote the nationalism. Therefore above
three factors are more significant when studying about the concept of
nationalism.
There
were some several significant accomplishments which affected to the
nationalism; they were French revolution and American Revolution. Especially
French revolutions affected to the emergence of democracy, participation of all
citizen to the process of government, liberty and fraternity and impact of
above features led to the nourishment of nationalism.[8]As
well as French revolution was an ideal example for the world to re-establish
nationalist movements. Meanwhile “At the
same time, history books usually present the American revolution as a
nationalist, anti-colonial movement that deserves admiration. Similarly, many
people have had a great deal of sympathy for the anti- imperialist nationalism
of the former colonies in Asia and Africa struggling to become independent
states”[9]. Therefore, these
kinds of revolutionist ideas led to the nationalism.
Meanwhile, defining “What is Nationalism” is
more important. According to the
Britannica encyclopedia nationalism can be defined as, Nationalism
is an ideology that emphasizes loyalty, devotion,
or allegiance to a nation or nation-state and holds that such obligations
outweigh other individual or group interests.[10] Cambridge dictionary defines it, the feelings of affection and pride that people have for their country.[11]
Meanwhile world famous oxford dictionary interpreter nationalism as, the desire by a group of people who share the same
race, culture, language, etc. to form an independent country.[12] Not only the famous dictionaries and
encyclopedias, several world recognized scholars defined nationalism according
to their perspective. Hayes defines nationalism as, "In simplest terms, nationalism
may be defined as a fusion of patriotism with consciousness of
nationality."[13] Snyder
says that, "Nationalism is a condition of mind, feeling, or
sentiment of a group of people living in a well-defined geographical area,
speaking a common language, professing a literature in which the aspirations of
the nation have been expressed, being attached to the common traditions, and,
in some cases, having a common origin."[14] Meantime Antony de Smith mentions about the
nationalism by considering several features, "(1) securing fraternity and equality among co-nationals or
citizens, by integrating them into a homogenous unit; (2) unification in a
single nation-state of extra-territorial co-nationals; (3) stressing cultural
individuality through accentuation of 'national' differentiae; (4) a drive for
economic autarchy and self-sustaining growth; (5) attempts to expand the
nation-state, to maintain international power and status; (6) renewing the
cultural and social fabric of the nation through sweeping institutional
changes, to maintain international parity."[15]
According
to the above ideas or definitions, we can conclude that, nationalism is a
feeling which transplant in a human mind. It cannot be plant by force and it
should be planted automatically in a humans mind set. When studying
nationalism, it can be defined, A group of people who are living in a specific
area, supposing that they are belonged to one specific group. For an example,
In Sri Lanka, Sinhala, Tamil, Muslim and other rest of ethnic groups are living
together and thinking that they are Sri Lankans or they are belonging to Sri
Lankan territory is the Nationalism. With the formation of nation states,
nationalist ideologies were stimulated. As mentioned before nationalism cannot
be transplanted in a mind by force and it should be a feeling which feels
without a forcing, but some factors affect for the formation of nationalism.
They are,
·
political geography
·
international relations
•
political science
•
cultural anthropology
•
social psychology
•
political philosophy
(normative theory)
•
international law
•
sociology
•
history
Meanwhile
if nation state in a critical situation in politically, socially or culturally
(in a crisis) nationalist feelings of citizens can be stimulated. The best
example was nationalist movements against the colonialism. All most all
colonies struggled against the European imperialism for their freedom and
independence. The best example was India and Indian national movement. In every
movement, they struggled for gaining “swaraj” by taking nationalism as the key
point. There are nearly hundreds of languages, ethnic groups and religions in
India, but the all got together in front of the national crisis. That is the
nationalist feelings. For another example, Arab national can be taken. After
the 1st and 2nd world wars, some European countries tried
to create some issues in Arabia, once using the Israel and Palestine crisis,
nationalization of Aswan dam, Iranian revolution etc. But Arab citizens
gathered around their identities to protect their regional identity. Therefore,
in most of times, nationalism awaken with an issues and nationalist ideas
gathered around it.
At present, nationalist ideas have upgraded
with the time and spaces by adding and leaving some ideas. At the beginning
nationalism was only an idea which helped for gathering people around the
nation state and after hundreds of years, nationalism have become theory which
having vast field area. For an example, James Goodman, for instance,
categorizes theories of nationalism into five approaches: ethno-national,
modernization, state-centered, class-centered, and ‘uneven development’
theories. Same time,
·
Ernest Gellner (Nations
and Nationalism, 1983).
·
Eric Hobsbawm (The
Invention of Tradition, 1983, co-edited with Terence Ranger, and later Nations
and Nationalism since 1780, 1992).
·
Benedict Anderson (Imagined
Communities, 1983).
·
Anthony D. Smith (The
Ethnic Origins of Nations, 1986)
Introduced
several different ideas to the nationalism. The first three are in the category
modernization theories, A. D. Smith is the main ‘primordialist’. Gellner’s
academic field was the philosophy of sociology, Anderson taught international
relations, Hobsbawm is a social historian, and Smith a sociologist.
Gellner’s work is the most consistently theoretical:
it proposes a model of the transformation to nation states derived from
economic factors: “So the economy needs
both the new type of central culture and the central state; the culture needs
the state; and the state probably needs the homogeneous branding of its flock
...”[16] Anderson
does not propose a derivation of this kind, but his central thesis is that
communication and media did facilitate the emergence of nations as imagined
communities. For Anderson, only face- to-face contact can sustain community:
nations are in some sense an illusion. Both of these views date nationalism as
definitively modern. A. D. Smith’s central thesis is that pre-modern
equivalents of nations existed - indirectly invalidating the modernization
theories. Hobsbawm’s article on invented tradition appeared earlier, but can be
read as a refutation of the pre-modern origin of national tradition. Hobsbawm
gives examples of how such tradition, even the sustaining myth of nations, can
be borrowed, added to, or simply invented.
But
at present, with the introduction of several new theories and ideologies,
nationalist ideas were malfunctioned and the globalization was such idea. After
the 2nd world war, globalization was populared in the world and it
affected to the nationalism in many ways. With the activation of nationalism,
political nationalism was collapsed due to the international laws,
international accords, international and regional organizations etc. Therefore
it directly affected to the sovereignty of the state and has to function
according to the international codes. Meanwhile, at present, people are forced
to struggle against the state and international support received to that kind
of struggles. For the nationalism, state was a major fact and nationalism
centered on state. But due to the present worldwide media activities, person or
the citizen receives a remarkable situation and citizen centered social
structure has begun. Therefore, nationalism foot stepped to a colossal crisis.
Meantime, due to the policies and activities of global trades and
multi-national companies economic nationalism faces many consequences.
Similar features of Asian Nationalism
·
Anti- Colonial Nationalism.
Due to the renaissance in Europe, several new
inventories were innovated to the world. Europeans experimented on sea
explorations to seek the world beyond the Europe. As a result of sea voyages,
they landed to Asia, Africa and Latin American territories to find out
Christians and broad the commerce. At the beginning, Europeans accorded with
the local bodies for trade activities and finally captured the entire region.
It was known as colonialism or imperialism. Portuguese, Dutch, French, British,
etc. captured several territories in Asia for establish new colonies and
develop their motherlands for the core of the Asian lands.
Most of the Asian countries were ruled by
European crowns and controlled them according to their ruling system. Countries
like Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia, Thailand, and Myanmar etc. controlled
according to the western patterns. Most of Asian countries had to face many
political, social, cultural and religious issues to the western occupation.
They discouraged the local trade and commerce by introducing western goods
while using Asian colonies as a market. Promoted European goods by implementing
new taxes to the local goods and gradually decreased the sponsorship for the
local industries. Introduced Christianity to Asia by spacing to the missionary
organizations and it directly affected to the local religions and cultural
aspects. Missionaries foot stepped to the education and introduced western and
modernized education to Asia, for a colossal brain wash. Gradually, European
powers converted Asia according to their aspects and brought the core of Asia
to Europe.
For an example, In Sri
Lanka, lastly British ruled the country and the changed the entire country
within few years. Against the British militant and administrative activities,
local bourgeois and rest of peasants struggled against the British. Specially
they established several new organizations for the freedom such as temperance
movement, Buddhist theosophical association, Ceylon national council etc. “In
Buddhist hands, however, the temperance movement took on a dimension; it became
a protest against the and Christians values that introduced alcohol to Sri
Lanka as well as a protest against the British government that profited from
the excise tax.”[17] illustrates about
the anti- colonial movement of the temperance movements and all the ethnic
leader and local citizens gathered around these organizations. Several books,
newspapers, dramas, poems were published against the colonial cultural aspects
and locals were motivated and gathered around the independence movements. "
……Sinhalese identified that Buddhist schools were created according to the
national feelings and these schools were their schools. Meanwhile, they
identified that missionary schools were established to convert them into
Christianity."[18]
Not only the Sinhalese but also Tamils and Muslims identified the
importance of the ethnic nationalism and finally converted it into a national
nationalism.
Same time in India became
a colony for several European nations and India was divided into several
regions by the Europeans. A part was reign by Dutch, Potugues, French and
British, Therefore they started a “Swaraj” or independence movement for the
freedom of the country. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Sri Nehru, Nawaroji etc.
joined with the anti- colonial movement and Indian university students spreaded
nationalist and liberal ideas among the people.[19]
Formation of Indian national congress, non- violation movement of Gandhi,
militant movements of Subhash Chandrabosh led to the Indian nationalism and
hundred thousands of people gathered around them. Meanwhile Indian nationalist
movement accelerated the Asian decolonization movement and most of other
countries copied the Indian agitation movement.
Due to the nationalist
movement in Asia, Philippines achieved independence in June 1898, Afghanistan
in August 1919, Egypt in February 1919, Iraq in October 1932, Lebanon in
November 1943, Syria in November 1943, Indonesia in November1945, Vietnam in
September 1945, India in August 1947, Myanmar in January 1948, Sri Lanka in
February 1948, China in August1945, Laos in October 1953, Cambodia in November
1953 etc. Therefore colonialism was a common factor to the whole Asia and by
implementing nationalist movement, Asian countries became decolonized.
·
Ethnic Nationalism
For the easiness of the
rule, all most all European empires used divide and rule theory to control
Asian countries. As not as in Europe, Asian countries were full of ethnic
diversity and they were differ from each other via culture, religion, beliefs
and rituals, food and beverages etc. Therefore, they used the cultural or
ethnic diversity as a tool of control. They knew that harmony among the ethnic
groups can be a problem to their administration and implemented new rules and
regulations to create ethic disparities. Specially they implemented ethnic
quota for the legislation and re-created ethnic stress.
Even in Sri Lanka,
British introduced a legislative system with ethnic representation and ethnic
political leaders struggled to increase the number of representatives of the
own ethnic group. Due to such accomplishments, stress and misunderstanding
among ethnic groups were arisen and in Sri Lanka, it was continued as a thirty
year civil war. Still Sri Lanka facing lots of issues due to the ethnic
diversity due to the missing of ethnic nationalism. Not only in Sri Lanka,
India also facing such crises with the division of Bengal. With the division of
Bengal, Muslims and Hindus divided unevenly and finally it was caused to the
separation of Pakistan after the independence. Not only the Hindu Islamic
issue, Hindu and Sheik issue was one of the critical crisis in India. Not only
in these two countries, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, Indonesia facing such kinds
of Issues due to the ethnic crises. Some ethnic problems converted into civil
wars and some issues solved with a separate land, the best examples are India
and Pakistan, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Most
of these issues were arisen due to the administrative tricks of European
powers. Still most of Asian countries couldn’t build up a stable ethnic
nationalism in their own countries.
·
Cultural Nationalism.
Another similarity among
Asian nationalism is struggling for the cultural nationalism or cultural
identity. As the decolonized countries, most of Asian countries had to find out
their cultural identities which were mingled with the western traditions.
For an
example, Sri Lanka also faced to the above situation and Sri Lankan cultural
identities still searching their cultural nationalism. Due to the European
occupation traditions, custom and manners, rituals changed according to the
western and modern aspects. Not only Sri Lanka, most of other Asian countries
searching their cultural traditions. Meanwhile, not only because of the
imperialism, globalization is also an issue which affect for the culture in
Asia. Same time, Iran was a country, that fought for their cultural nationalism
and Iranian revolution denotes their inspiration on cultural nationalism.[20]
King Sha tried to mingle European culture with Iranian culture, while Aithulla
Kumaini and his followers gathered people for the protection of their culture.
·
Economic nationalism
Economy is the key or
heart of a country and economic power is very important for the strength of a
country. Economy of most of Asian countries based on agricultural and service
sections and only few countries emerged as industrial powers.
Due to the colonialism
most of Asian countries lost their traditional industries and agriculture, but
under the colonial occupation, they introduced plantation agriculture to the
Asian countries. Except few countries, other Asian countries converted their
economy into a commercial agriculture and industrial mode and Hong Kong,
Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan became the Asian tigers with a high growth of
economy.[21]
According to the present world order, the world economy flows through the Asian
countries and china is the hub of the Asian economy. But, still some countries
face some economic crises due to the multinational companies and worldwide
organizations. For an example developing countries like Sri Lanka, Bangladesh,
Pakistan etc. facing some troubles due to the role of multinational companies
and worldwide organizations like united
nations organization, International monetary fund, world bank etc.
[1] Lloyd Kramer, Nationalism in Europe and America, University of North Carolina
Press, U.S.A., 2001, p.4.
[2] Helen M. Jewell, Women in dark age and early medieval Europe,
Palgrave Macmillan Publishers, New York, 2007, p.135.
[3] http//.www.rocknlaw.fr/ The
concept of state, nation, nation state, federalism and European Union
[5] Michael B. Bishku, Nationalism, Oxford university Press,
London, 2010, p. 3.
[6] Anthony Fry, Safe
Space:How to survive in a threating world, Dent, London, 1987, p.66.
[7] Christian J Tams and James Sloan, The development of the international law by
the international court of justice, oxford University press, London,
2013p.153.
[8]
Colin Baker and Sylvia Prys, Encyclopedia
of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education, Multilingual matters, South
Africa, date not mentioned, p. 327.
[9] Gregory Baum, Nationalism and religion ethnics, McGill-Queen’s University press,
London, 2001, p. 3.
[13] Dusan Kecmanovic, The mass psychology of Ethno nationalism,
Springer Science publishers, New York, 1996, p. 15.
[14] ibid, 16
[15] ibid, 16
[16]
E.GELLNER,
Nations and Nationalism. Oxford University press, Blackwell,
1983, p.140.
[17] George D. Bond, The Buddhist
Revival in Sri Lanka, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi,1992, 62 p.
[18] Victor Ivon, Pansale viplawaya, Bauddha punarjiwanaya Soma himi dakwa, Rawaya
publications, Maharagama, 2006, 129 p.
[19] Sudhabshu Bhushan, The future of higher education in India,
Springer nature, Singapore, 2019, p.36
[20] Ali. M. Ansari, The politics of nationalism in modern Iran,
Cambridge University press, Cambridge, 2012, p. 2-3.
[21] Juan J. Palacios, Multinational
corporations and the emerging network economy in Asia and the pacific, Rutledge
publishers, New York, 2008, p. 183.
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